International Journal of Maritime Crime & Security

49 Editorial https://ijmcs.co.uk/details&cid=49 2025-02-18 https://ijmcs.co.uk/cdn/article_file/2025-02-18-10-01-17-AM.pdf Professor Chris Bellamy 1105 0 0

51 Seeing like a Pirate: The Entrepreneurship of Piracy in Southeast Asia https://ijmcs.co.uk/details&cid=51 2025-02-18 Why has piracy flourished in Southeast Asia over the past decade? What are the underlying incentives for pirates, and how do these forces influence their operations? This paper explores these questions through the lens of enterprise theory, an approach that posits that piracy, much like any business venture, is run by risk-taking entrepreneurs who make decisions in reaction to market demands and economic opportunities. By framing pirates as entrepreneurs and piracy as a business, this paper argues that treating piracy as a rational, market-driven enterprise is crucial to deciphering the persistence and resilience of these criminal syndicates. In support of this thesis, the paper delves into the economic underpinnings of piracy, analyzing how market demand for commodities drives piracy. It also examines how pirates have adapted their organizational structure and operational strategies to the changing security and economic landscape. Concluding, this paper recommends that counterpiracy should focus on denying pirates access to necessary inputs for their business and reducing the economic incentives for piracy. Albanese, J.S., 2008. Risk assessment in organized crime. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 24(3), pp.263-273. Anderson, D., 2009. Somali piracy: Historical context, political contingency. European Security Forum Working Paper, (33). Axbard, S., 2016. Income opportunities and sea piracy in Indonesia: Evidence from satellite data. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8(2), pp.154-194. Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A., Greed and grievance in civil war. Policy Research Working Paper, (2355). Daxecker, U. and Prins, B., 2015. Searching for sanctuary: Government power and the location of maritime piracy. International Interactions, 41(4), pp.699-717. Dean, G., Fahsing, I. and Gottschalk, P., 2010. Organized Crime: Policing Illegal Business Entrepreneurialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Desai, R.M. and Shambaugh, G.E., 2021. Measuring the global impact of destructive and illegal fishing on maritime piracy: A spatial analysis. PLOS One, 16(2). UNODC, Enterprise or business model of organized crime. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/e4j/zh/organized-crime/module-7/key-issues/enterprise-or-business-model.html [Accessed 12 April 2024]. Frécon, E., 2006. Piracy and armed robbery at sea along the Malacca Straits. In: Ong-Webb, G. ed. Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Securing the Malacca Straits. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Gottschalk, P., 2009. Entrepreneurship and Organised Crime. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Hastings, J.V., 2009. Geographies of state failure and sophistication in maritime piracy hijackings. Political Geography, 28, pp.213-223. Hastings, J.V., 2020. The return of sophisticated maritime piracy to Southeast Asia. Pacific Affairs, 93(1), pp.5-29. International Maritime Bureau, 2022. Piracy and armed robbery against ships: Report for the period, 1 January – 31 December 2022. International Chamber of Commerce. Jorisch, A., 2011. Today’s pirates have their own stock exchange. Wall Street Journal. Available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304520804576341223910765818 [Accessed 12 April 2024]. Liss, C., 2003. Maritime piracy in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian Affairs, pp.52-68. Lucas, E., 2012. Pirates and insurgency: Reframing the Somali piracy problem. Piracy Studies. Available at: https://piracy-studies.org/pirates-and-insurgency [Accessed 12 April 2024]. McCauley, A., The most dangerous waters in the world. Time. Available at: https://time.com/piracy-southeast-asia-malacca-strait [Accessed 12 April 2024]. Morabito, G. and Sergi, B.S., 2018. How did maritime piracy affect trade in Southeast Asia? Journal of East Asian Studies, 18(2), pp.255-265. Mui, L.Y., 2002. Piracy and armed robbery as an evolving threat to Southeast Asia’s maritime security. Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative CSIS. Available at: https://amti.csis.org/piracy-as-an-evolving-threat-to-southeast-asias-maritime-security [Accessed 12 April 2024]. Nowakowska-Krystman, A., 2016. Maritime piracy as a form of organized crime: A strategic management approach. Connections QJ, 15(3), pp.41-53. ReCAAP Information Sharing Centre, 2016. Piracy and armed robbery against ships in Asia 2015. Singapore: ReCAAP. ReCAAP Information Sharing Centre, 2015. Special report on incidents of siphoning of fuel/oil at sea in Asia (Part II). Singapore: ReCAAP. Rosenberg, D., 2009. The political economy of piracy in the South China Sea. Naval War College Review, 62(3). Smith, D.C., 1978. Organized crime and entrepreneurship. *International Journal of Criminology and Penology Smith, D.C., 1980. Paragons, pariahs, and pirates: A spectrum-based theory of enterprise. Crime and Delinquency, 26(3), pp.358-386. Spiess, R., 2019. Black spots: Southeast Asia’s modern-day pirate problem. Southeast Asia Globe. Available at: https://southeastasiaglobe.com/black-spots/ [Accessed 12 April 2024]. van Duyne, P.C., 2000. Mobsters are human too: Behavioral science and organized crime investigation. Crime, Law and Social Change, 34(4), pp.369-390. von Hoesslin, K., 2016. The economics of piracy in South East Asia. The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. https://ijmcs.co.uk/cdn/article_file/2025-02-18-10-08-26-AM.pdf Tony Yuan Li Crime Governance Law Enforcement Maritime Piracy Security Southeast Asia 2272 11 0

52 The 2013 Yaounde code of conduct: an evaluation https://ijmcs.co.uk/details&cid=52 2025-02-18 This paper examines the Yaoundé Code of Conduct - the maritime Security framework of 2013 for countering piracy/sea robbery in West African states of the Gulf of Guinea. Premised against the pernicious and near perennial challenge of low maritime domain awareness and a poorly organized ocean governance infrastructure which has undermined the thriving of the blue economy and the Safety of Life at Sea in the region. The paper examines the Yaoundé Architecture through the lenses of piracy/sea robbery as it effects the blue economy. Triangulation was used both as a methodology as well as method of data collection from a critical mass of global and regional maritime stakeholders-agencies/actors in the region as well as secondary sources, to interrogate the seemingly perennial and ever-dynamic phenomenon of Piracy and Sea Robbery in the Gulf of Guinea. The paper concludes with some recommendations aimed at improving upon and consolidating on the gains of the Yaoundé Architecture through the Yaoundé Code of Conduct in countering piracy/sea robbery along with other transnational maritime crime in the Gulf of Guinea. Akintayo, O. (2023). Nigeria lost N2.3tn revenue to oil theft in 12 months — IOC. Available from: Ali, K.D. (2015) The Anatomy of Gulf of Guinea Piracy. Naval War College Review, 68(1), 93–118. http://search.proquest.com/openview/f0b98e5688d45bd0185614601f823967/1?pq-origsite=gscholar Ali, K.D., & Benning, Y. (2020). Gulf of Guinea Piracy: The Old, the New, and the Dark Shades. CEMLAWS Governance Brief, 2(1). Ali, K.-D., & Benning, Y. (2020). Gulf of Guinea Piracy: The Old, the New and the Dark Shades. CEMLAWS Governance Brief, 2(1). BBC News. (2019, June 18). Piracy in West Africa: The world’s most dangerous seas? BBC.com. https://www. bbc.com/news/world-africa-48581197 Available at: Bell, C., Huggins J., Benson J., Joubert L., Okafor-Yarwood I. and Ebiede T.M. (2021) “Pirates of the Gulf of Guinea: A Cost Analysis for Coastal States.” A report of the Stable Seas, a Transnational Maritime Security Research Organization with members in the United States and South Africa. Coordinated by The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime’s Global Maritime Crime Program (UNODC GMCP) with support from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Bueger, C. (2015). What is Maritime Security? Marine Policy. 53, 159-164. Bueger, C., & Edmunds, T. (2017). Beyond sea blindness: A new agenda for maritime security studies. International Affairs, 93(6), 1293–1311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix174 Dryad Global. (2020, August 5). Dryad Global. Retrieved August 2022 from Yaounde Code of Conduct taking shape in the Gulf of Guinea: https://channel16.dryadglobal.com/yaounde-code-of-conduct-taking-shape-in-thegulf-of-guinea ECOWAS. (2013, June 25). Code of conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery Against Ships,and Ilicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa. The Yaounde Code of Conduct. Yaounde, Cameron. GOGIN Watch. (2019, 1 September). Chiefs of Naval of Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Gendarmerie of Burkina Faso Sign MoU on Maritime Security. Retrieved June 2022 from EU- Gulf of Guinea Interregional Network: https://www.gogin.eu/en/2019/09/01/chiefs-of-naval-of-cote-divoire-ghana-guinealiberia-sierra-leone-and-gendarmerie-of-burkina-faso-sign-mou-on-maritime-security Hasan, S., & Hassan, D. (2016). Current Arrangements to Combat Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea: An Evaluation. Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce, 47(2), 171–217. 156 Yücel: Sovereignty and Transnational Cooperation in the Gulf of Guinea Hassan, D., & Hasan, S. (2017). Effectiveness of the current regimes to combat piracy in the Gulf of Guinea: An evaluation. African Journal of Legal Studies, 10(1), 35–65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/17087384- 12340014 Herrhausen, A. (2007). Coordination in United Nations peacebuilding: A theory-guided approach (SP IV 2007-301). http://hdl.handle.net/10419/49744 ICC Commercial Crime Services. (2021, 13 January). Gulf of Guinea records highest ever number of crew kidnapped in 2020, according to IMB’s annual piracy report. icc-ccs.org. https://www.icc-ccs.org/index. php/1301-gulf-of-guinea-records-highest-ever-number-of-crew-kidnapped-in-2020-according-to-imb-sannual-piracy-report [accessed 04 03 2021]. ICC Commercial Crime Services. (2021, January 13). Gulf of Guinea records highest ever number of crew kidnapped in 2020, according to IMB’s annual piracy report. icc-ccs.org. accessed at IMB. (2022). ICC- IMB Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships Report- First Quarter 2022. Statistical report, ICC International Maritime Bureau, Piracy Reporting Centre, London. International Crisis Group (2012). The Gulf of Guinea: The New Danger Zone. Report No. 195. International Maritime Bureau (2022) CC- IMB Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships Report – January - June 2022 International Maritime Bureau (IMB) 2019 “Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships.” Report for the Period 1 January- 30 September 2019. ICC IMB London. International Maritime Bureau IMB (2018) Accessed at https://www.icc-ccs.org/reports/2018_Annual_IMB_Piracy_Report.pdf International Maritime Bureau. (2008). Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships Report: Report for the Period 1 January – 31 March 2008. International Maritime Bureau. (2010). Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Annual Report. International Maritime Bureau. (2015). International Maritime Bureau. Retrieved from https://icc-ccs.org/icc/imb International Maritime Bureau. (2016). Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships. International Maritime Bureau. (2022). ICC- IMB Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships Report- First Quarter 2022. Statistical report, ICC International Maritime Bureau, Piracy International Maritime Organization (2021) “Long Range Identification and Tracking.” Accessed International Maritime Organization IMO (2012) Reports on Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships. MSC.4/Circ.193 2 April 2013 Annual Reports 2012. Accessed 25 December 2022 at https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/imb-piracy-and-armed-robbery International Maritime Organization IMO (2014) Reports on Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships. MSC.4/Circ.219/Rev.1 28 April 2015 Annual Reports 2014. Accessed 25 December 2022 at https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/Piracy-Reports-Default.aspx International Maritime Organization IMO (2019) Reports on Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships. MSC.4/Circ.264 27 April 2020 Annual Reports 2019. Accessed 25 December 2022 at https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/Piracy-Reports-Default.aspx International Peace Institute (2014) Insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea: Assessing the Threats, International Peace Keeping Centre Jaji, Kaduna, Nigeria Interview #1 (2023) Nigerian Navy Commodore on Secondment to ECOWAS) as Head of ECOWAS Regional Maritime Security Centre (CRESMAO) age 53 with 31 years in service. (Interviewed on 12 Dec. 2023) Interview #2 (2023) Navy Capt. 45 years old personnel of the Nigerian Navy a Defence Attachee with the ECOWAS Regional Maritime Security Centre in Abidjan. (Interviewed 13 Nov. 2023). Interview #3 (2023) Capt. (Nig. Navy) Secondment to Interregional Coordination Centre (ICC), Yaoundé age range (45-49) with 23 years in service. (Interviewed on 14 Dec. 2023) Johnson S.E., Baxter C. Bartis J.T. and Long D. (2012) “Promoting International Energy Security: Volume 4, The Gulf of Guinea”. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2012. Accessed at https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2012/ Kamal-Deen Ali, (2015). The Anatomy of Gulf of Guinea Piracy. Naval War College Review, 68, Krieger, T and Meierrieks, D. (2016). Does Income Inequality Lead to Terrorism? CESIFO Working Paper 5821. Available from: https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/cesifo1_wp5821.pdf. Accessed 17 July 2023.London March 2021. Maritime Executive. (2021, 12 February). Crew of Boxship Mozart Freed by Pirates Weeks After Brutal Attack. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/crew-of-boxship-mozart-freed-by-pirates-weeks-after-brutal-attack [accessed 24 02 2021]. Mbiriri, R. (2009) “Nigeria’s Deep Water Oil Fields: Cause for Contestation,” Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 1 November 2009. As of 27 February 2010: Accessed at http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284&Itemid=190 Mboob M. (2022) Evaluation of the Yaoundé Architecture. A Report of the Gulf of Guinea Maritime Institute. Mélanie, M. (2022 a, May 18). The maritime agencies of Guinea are connected to the YARIS platform. Retrieved June 2022 from EU- GOGIN: https://www.gogin.eu/en/2022/05/18/the-maritime-administrations-of-guinea-areconnected-to-the-yaris-platform/ Mélanie, M. (2022 c, April 26). The Nigerian Navy operational centres connected to YARIS. Retrieved June, 2022 from EU-GOGIN: https://www.gogin.eu/en/2022/04/26/thenigerian-navy-operational-centres-connected-to-yaris/ Ngada T. (2023) “The Yaoundé Architecture for Maritime Security: Roles Responsibilities and Results” Training and Practice Division, Interregional Coordination Centre (ICC) Yaoundé Okafor-Yarwood, I., Pigeon, M., Amling, A., Ridgway, C., Adewumi, I., & Joubert, L. (2020). Stable Seas: Gulf of Guinea. https://download-files.wixmp.com/ugd/1e2140_8b22cede00894739a91a4d.pdf [accessed 25 05 2021]. Okafor-Yarwood, I., Walker, T., & Reva, D. (2021, 7 February). Gulf of Guinea piracy: a symptom, not a cause, of insecurity. ISS Today. https://issafrica.org/iss-today/gulf-of-guinea-piracy-a-symptom-not-acause-of-insecurity [accessed 04 03 2021]. Osagie, E. (2022, March 22). Collaboration Responsible for Decline in Piracy on Nigerian waters – NIMASA DG. Retrieved June 2022 from NIMASA: https://nimasa.gov.ng/collaboration-responsible-for-decline-in-piracy-onnigerian-waters-nimasa-dg/ Osinowo A.A. (2015) Combatting Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea. African Centre for Strategic Studies. No. 30 Feb. 2015. Preparing the Response. Meeting Note. Available from: https://www.ipinst.org/wp- Ralby, I.M. (2016. A Human Security Approach to Maritime Security in the Gulf of Guinea. 31 August. Available from: https://comparativejurist.org/2016/08/31/a-human-security-approach-to-maritime-security-in-the-gulf-of-guinea/Reporting Centre, London. Runciman, W. G. (1966) “Relative Deprivation and Social Justice,” Routledge and Kegan Paul, Schulze, M., and Krätschmer-Hahn, R. (2014). Relative Deprivation Theory. In: Michalos, A.C. Till, G. (2018). Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-First Century (4th ed.). Routledge. DOI: https://doi. org/ Ukeje, C., & Ela, M. (2013). African Approaches to Maritime Security – The Gulf of Guinea. In Friedrich Ebert Stiftung: Peace and Security Series (Issue 11). Available from: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/nigeria/10398. Accessed 05 12 2019 UN (1994) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was opened for signature on 10 Dec. 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica, and came into legal force on 16 Nov. 1994. United Nations (2008) Secretary General Report on Oceans and the Laws of the Sea. New York. United Nations (2019) “Oceans and the Laws of the Sea” Accessed at www.un.org United Nations (2022) Situation of Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea in the Gulf of Guinea and its Underlying Causes. United Nations’ S/2022/818 Report of the Secretary-General. 1 November 2022. Accessed at https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (n.d.). Available from: Terrorism and Transport. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/expertise/terrorism-and-transport.html. Accessed: 17 July 2023. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, (2021, 8 December). The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) operationalizes an MOU on Implementation of Joint Maritime patrols in Zone E. Retrieved June 2022 from UNODC West and Central Africa: https://www.unodc.org/westandcentralafrica/en/08-12-2021-the-economiccommunity-of-west-african-states-ecowas-operationalizes-an-mou-onimplementation-of-joint-maritime-patrols-in-zone-e-.htm United Nations Security Council (2022). Situation of piracy and armed robbery at sea in the Gulf United Nations Security Council, Resolution 2634 (2022). UNODC. (2019). The UNODC Supports Countries in the Gulf of Guinea to Combat Global Maritime Crime. UNODC West and Central Africa. UNODC. (2021, December 8). The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) operationalizes an MOU on Implementation of Joint Maritime patrols in Zone E. Retrieved June 2022 from UNODC West and Central Africa: https://www.unodc.org/westandcentralafrica/en/08-12-2021-the-economiccommunity-of-west-african-states-ecowas-operationalizes-an-mou-onimplementation-of-joint-maritime-patrols-in-zone-e-.htm Verme, P. (2013). Relative Deprivation, Discontent, and Revolutions. World Bank Blogs. Available from: https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/relative-deprivation-discontent-and-revolutions. Accessed, 13 May 2023. Yücel, H. (2021). Sovereignty and Transnational Cooperation in the Gulf of Guinea: How a Network Approach can Strengthen the Yaoundé Architecture. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 4(1), pp. 146–157. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.90 https://ijmcs.co.uk/cdn/article_file/2025-02-28-16-41-37-PM.pdf Kabiru Tanimu Yaoundé Code of Conduct maritime security Gulf of Guinea piracy sea robbery 4432 19 0

53 Polar Opposites https://ijmcs.co.uk/details&cid=53 2025-02-18 The frigid extremes of the planet are often ignored and largely misunderstood, even though they cover 11 million square miles (37.7 million square kilometres) and are often dismissed as uninhabitable, unimportant, frozen wastes that constitute the white margins at the edge of the map of the world. Their harsh environment and geographical isolation make them difficult to visit and challenging to live in. However, these two regions are so geographically different from each other, but play a fundamental role in the environmental balance of the globe’s climate. They are both strategically important and could act as geopolitical flashpoints. It is therefore crucial that we begin to look at these two areas from a more critical perspective, understand their pivotal importance to the future. The politics that surround these two areas are complex and fascinating, the economic value is significant, the social characteristics of the two regions are very different but equally important. As technology evolves mastering these two areas will alter, which will throw up a range of legal and environmental hurdles. The Arctic and Antarctic are both maritime domains and managing the maritime security concerns will be considerable. This article is designed to describe some of the aspects of the polar regions, provide some background and prompt discussion. These regions are destined to be more important to our future than most of have imagined. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field 365° divided by 24 equals 15°. These average temperatures are very conservative, as the poles represent around 20% of the earth’s surface, and temperatures vary significantly across both regions, where the lowest and highest temperatures far exceed the medians. The Ozone layer of gas (O3) in the atmosphere of the planet absorbs 97-99 percent of the sun’s harmful medium frequency ultraviolet light. Permafrost is soil or water that is continuously frozen for more than two years. Some land has been frozen for over 700,000 years and some permafrost is as deep as 1,500m. Calf/Calving: process by which ice breaks off a glacier's terminus; usually the term is reserved for tidewater glaciers or glaciers that end in lakes, but it can refer to ice that falls from hanging glaciers. https://nsidc.org/learn/cryosphere-glossary Significant floating ice definitions, Iceberg: a piece of ice that has broken off from the end of a glacier that terminates in water. Bergy Bit: large chunk of glacier ice (a very small iceberg) floating in the sea; bergy bits are usually less than 5 meters (15 feet) in size and are generally spawned from disintegrating icebergs. Growler an iceberg less than 2 meters (6.6 feet) across that floats with less than 1 meter (3.3 feet) showing above water; smaller than a bergy bit. Brash Ice: accumulation of floating ice made up of fragments not more than 2 meters (6.6 feet) across, the wreckage of other forms of ice. https://nsidc.org/learn/cryosphere-glossary National Geographic, Ocean: An illustrated Atlas, 2008 A23a: Tracking the world’s biggest iceberg as it drifts towards oblivion https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-f4de435a-d215-4a7c-86e9-9b838701c993 https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2022/02/what-the-latest-science-says-about-antarctica-and-sea-level-rise/ The Arctic, Klaus Dodds & Jamie Woodward, 2021 Geographical miles are the same distance as nautical miles 2,000 yards/, Peary’s party comprised six men, including Matthew Hanson and four Inuit men, Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah and Ooqueah. The Worst Journey in the World, Apsley Cherry-Garrard, 1922, p327 Ibid Scott’s route The Lives of Nansen and Amundsen, Hans Olav Thyvold , 2018, p150 The Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean covering 8.7 million square kilometres. Kowalik, Z. & Proshutinsky, A. Y. The Arctic Ocean Tides. The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment 1, 137–158 (American Geophysical Union (AGU), 1994). National Geographic Ocean Illustrated Atlas p254 Baleen plates have replaced teeth in Mysticises whales, they are stiff and act as a sieve, allowing whales to take vast volumes of water and small plankton into their enormous mouths, the water is then pushed out but the small creatures, captured by the Baleen plates remain and are consumed. The 1996 Ottawa Declaration saw the formation of the Arctic Council. The Council includes the Arctic states of Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and America. The Arctic Council was designed to increase cooperation, coordination, and diplomacy among the Arctic States with the involvement of indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants. The Arctic Council has performed studies on climate change’s effects in the Arctic. https://arctic-council.org/about/states/ Bernaerts’ Guide to the 1982 United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea p112 Ibid Ibid Ibid Art 56, p170 Ibid Art 59 p171 National Geographic, The New Cold War Sep 2019 World’s Most Capable Icebreakers: Russia’s New Arktika Class - https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/may/worlds-most-capable-icebreakers-russias-new-arktika-class USCG Polar Star, the US Icebreaker was commissioned in 1974. WSW – West by Southwest, Capt James Cook, The Journals Monday 18th January 1773, 65° 52’S, 39° 35’E The Antarctic, Klaus Dodds p57 Ibid Shipping in Arctic Waters, Østreng, Jørgensen-Dahl, Wergelend, Eger, Lothe, Fløistad, Mejlænder-Larsen, 2013, pxxiv Ibid Ibid Authors italics. VN Leskin and BN Porfiriev, “The Russian Arctic: The logic and paradoxes of change,” Stud. Russ. Econ. Dev. 30, 594-605 (2019) Transport Infrastructure of the Russian Arctic: Specific Features and Development Prospects, Serova and Serova 2020, Luzin Institute for Economic Studies, Federal Research Centre of Kola Science Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Pages/polar-code.aspx Both Suez Canal and Panama Canal charge ships transiting the canals for their use. Marine Insurance comprises; Hull & Machinery which covers the material aspects of the vessel; Protection and Indemnity (P&I) covers ship owners, charterers against third party liability linked to the operation of the ship; Cargo insurance for the cargo. https://chnl.no/news/main-results-of-nsr-transit-navigation-in-2024/ Rosatom, the Russian State Atomic Energy Corporation reported a figure of 3.08 tons of cargo transiting the NSR during the year. Ibid Ibid Shipping in Arctic Waters, Østreng, Jørgensen-Dahl, Wergelend, Eger, Lothe, Fløistad, Mejlænder-Larsen, 2013, p142 Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) State of the Cruise Industry Report April 2024 Ibid https://www.aeco.no/ https://iaato.org/ The global population in 1950 was around 2.6 billion, by 2050, the global population is estimated to be around 9 billion, a 350% increase. https://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/arcticregion/Arctic-Indigenous-Peoples https://arctic-council.org/about/permanent-participants/ Antarctic Convergence is a hydrological boundary that separates the northward flowing cold Antarctic waters from the warmer waters of the great oceans. The Antarctic waters normally sink below the warmer waters but where there are upwellings of cold Antarctic waters rich in Krill and are very high in marine productivity. The line is dynamic that fluctuates by up to 0.5 of a degree of latitude. As the Arctic is surrounded by land is does not have a maritime convergence line but it does have a terrestrial tree line marking a climatic zone. In accordance with IAATO, only 100 people are allowed to step ashore at any one location at a time, meaning that many of the larger cruise ship passengers only view the environment from the ship. Many of the early Antarctic expeditions including Amundsen, Mawson, Scott and Shackleton included the dogs as part of their rations as the loads on the sledges required less animals to pull the loads. Many quantum computing technologies operate at 0.1Kelvin/-273°C As most communication satellites orbit above the populated areas of the planet, the space above the poles is less cluttered, therefore a satellite in a polar orbit would have less lunar traffic to deal with. The temperature in outer space is generally 2.73 Kelvin (-270.42°C/-454.75°F) https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/what-is-the-temperature-of-space USA is not a signatory of UNCLOS. https://arctic-council.org/explore/work/cooperation/ Aleut International Association (AIA), Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), Gwichín Council International (GCI), Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC), Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), Saami Council https://arctic-council.org/about/permanent-participants/ https://arctic-council.org/explore/work/cooperation/ https://www.ats.aq/index_e.html Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, USSR (Russia), South Africa, UK and USA. LawTeacher. November 2013. Antarctic Treaty System: Strengths and Weaknesses. [online]. Available from: https://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-essays/international-law/antarctic-treaty-system-8363.php?vref=1 [Accessed 22 August 2024]. Convention of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (1964), Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972), Convention for the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982), Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities (1988), Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991). As an example since 1963, Australia has undertaken just 10 inspections of facilities in Antarctica, mostly coastal stations and just one of the inland seasonal Station Taishan, run by China in 2019/20. However, no party has ever inspected the inland Chinese station Kunlun on Dome Argus. Ice Panda: Navigating China’s hybrid Antarctic Agenda, Dr Elizabeth Buchanan, ASPI, August 2024 LawTeacher. November 2013. Antarctic Treaty System: Strengths and Weaknesses. [online]. Available from: https://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-essays/international-law/antarctic-treaty-system-8363.php?vref=1 [Accessed 22 August 2024]. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/ https://www.theuncertaintyproject.org/tools/rumsfeld-matrix The Anarchic Sea, Dave Sloggett, p37 In a survey conducted by two international shipping associations, BIMCO and the International Chamber of Shipping in 2015 they identified the top seafarer supplying nations, all of which use the same word for “safety” and “security”: including China 安全 (Ānquán), Philippines “seguridad” (Spanish), Russian “безопасность”, and India “सुरक्षा”. The two largest ship owning countries also use the same word for “safety” and “security”: Greece – ασφάλεια (asfaleia) and China. Oxford English Dictionary Oxford English Dictionary These ports and airfields are in various states of serviceability but there are aspirations, with Chinese financial support, to reinvigorate the network. Artic policies and strategies for Arctic States, Indigenous Peoples and non-Arctic States are listed at https://arcticportal.org/arctic-governance/arctic-policies-database National Geographic September 2019. Ibid Ibid The concept of transhipment ports is they act as hub ports for ships to visit to exchange containers. In this case, the delivery of laden containers from China, by specialist ice strengthened ships using the NEP and the collection of containers with European products and/or empty boxes. United Nations Conference on Trade and development Maritime Transport Review 2024, p38 The “coolest” place for astronomy, Chinese Embassy, Canberra website Ice Panda: Navigating China’s hybrid Antarctic Agenda, Dr Elizabeth Buchanan, ASPI, August 2024 Ibid https://www.seashepherd.org.au/our-campaigns/antarctica-defense/ Arctic Council and Antarctic Treaty. https://iwc.int/management-and-conservation/whaling/commercial https://iwc.int/table_objection Paul Watson: Sea Shepherd eco-warrior fighting to stop whaling and seal hunts. The Telegraph 17 Apr 09. https://www.seashepherd.org.au/who-we-are/our-mission/ https://ijmcs.co.uk/cdn/article_file/2025-02-18-10-14-54-AM.pdf Peter Cook Arctic Antarctic polar opposites maritime security 1632 3 4